Toxicity Analysis of Baby Mattresses
Stealth Poisoning in Our Children’s Cribs
by: Barry A. Cik, PE, CP, DEE, QEP, REM, CHMM*
Chief Engineer, G.E.M. Testing & Engineering Labs
PART I: WHAT'S IN A TYPICAL BABY MATTRESS?
A. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
All plastics are not created equal. The "vinyl" surface typically used in baby mattresses is actually polyvinyl chloride (also known as PVC). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is made from vinyl chloride, which is a combination of petroleum (ethylene) and chlorine. This particular plastic
is far more toxic than the plastic bag you might use to pack your lunch.
“The chemical composition of PVC includes two features. First, PVC is the only plastic that contains chlorine... Second, plasticizers, i.e., additives, are used in PVC, mostly diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP), from 0 to almost 50% of the weight... In conclusion, in our case-control study of testicular cancer, a somewhat surprisingly high risk was observed for exposure to PVC plastics.”
(Hardell, Lennart, et al. “Occupational Exposure to Polyvinyl Chloride as a Risk Factor for Testicular Cancer Evaluated in a Case-Control Study.” International Journal of Cancer. 73, 828-830 1997. www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Occupational-Exposure-PVC.htm See also National Library of Medicine)
“Chronic inhalation of [PVC] dusts can cause pulmonary damage, blood effects
and abnormal liver function... Skin [contact] can cause allergic dermatitis...
Hazardous decomposition [results in] toxic flammable gases.”
(Safety and MSDS, Louisiana State University, Center for Advanced Microstructures
and Devices, February 1995, www.camd.lsu.edu/msds/p/polyvinylchloride.htm)
“Polyvinyl chloride [is a plastic that] releases hydrochloric acid when burned.”
(Environmental Regulatory Glossary, Government Institutes, Inc. Fifth Edition)
In addition to the inherent toxicity of PVC, chemical plasticizers, stabilizers, fire retardants, biocides, and an assortment of other chemicals are added. These chemicals perform various functions from softening the plastic surface to fire-treating the inherently flammable PVC.
PVC is itself a hard plastic. In order to make it soft and flexible, phthalate plasticizers are added. This gives manufacturers an inexpensive baby mattress cover material. Phthalate plasticizers typically account for 30% by weight of the vinyl surface of a typical baby mattress.
“Although DEHP plasticizes numerous products, roughly 95% of the current production is used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (National Toxicology Program 2003), where it typically constitutes 30% of PVC by weight... The incidence of asthma and allergy has increased throughout the developed world over the past 30 years... The short interval over which it has occured implies that the increase is caused by changes in environmental exposures rather than genetic changes... di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was associated with asthma... This study shows that phthalates, within the range of what is normally found
in indoor environments, are associated with allergic symptoms in children.”
(Bornehag, Carl-Gustaf, et al. "The Association Between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dusts." Environmental Health Perspectives Oct. 2004. http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/2004/7187/7187.pdf)
“Phthalates are animal carcinogens and can cause fetal death, malformations,
and reproductive toxicity in laboratory animals... children may be at higher risk
of adverse effects of phthalates because of anticipated higher exposures during
a time of developmental and physiologic immaturity.”
(Pediatric Exposure and Potential Toxicity of Phthalate Plasticizers, Katherine M. Shea, MD, MPH, and Committee on Environmental Health, American Academy of Pediatrics, Pediatrics Volume 111 No. 6, June 2003, Pg. 1467, www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/111/6/1467)
“… phthalates are ubiquitous industrial chemicals with a wide range of chemical and toxicologic characteristics... rodent liver carcinogen... teratogenic in animals... toxic to the testes... Sertoli cell toxicants...”
(Levels of Seven Urinary Phthalate Metabolites in a Human Reference Population, Benjamin C. Blount, et al., National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 108 No. 10, October 2000, Pg. 979)
“According to some medical studies, the plasticizers added to PVC may cause chronic conditions such as Raynaud's syndrome, scleroderma, cholangiocarcinoma, angiosarcoma, brain cancer and acroosteolysis…”
(“Polyvinyl Chloride.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride)
Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is the most widely used phthalate plasticizer. The US Department of Health and Human Services (Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program) has classified DEHP as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen.”
(Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate, CAS No. 117-81-7, First Annual Report on Carcinogens, Revised January 2001, www.mindfully.org/Plastic/DEHP-Carcinogen-EHIS.htm)
Phthalates are not silently present in the PVC vinyl surface of a baby mattress. They actually leach out of the PVC plastic.
“Phthalates are not covalently bound to the plastic matrix and leach out of PVC.”
(Pediatric Exposure and Potential Toxicity of Phthalate Plasticizers, American Academy of Pediatrics, Technical Report, Katherine M. Shea, MD, MPH, and the Committee on Environmental Health, Pediatrics Volume 111, No. 6, June 2003, Pg. 1467-1474, www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/111/6/1467)
A study of phthalates in hospital settings revealed the following:
“Other potential respiratory exposures to DEHP in the NICU include off-gassing from… mattress covers… the off-gassing of DEHP can result in respiratory exposures as high as 0.86 mg DEHP/kg bw/day… DEHP exposures continue when the neonate arrives at home… off-gassing of indoor vinyl products.”
(Brody, Charlotte. “Neonatal Exposure to DEHP and Opportunites for Prevention.” Health Care Without Harm. July 13, 2000. www.noharm.org/details.cfm?type=document&id=379)
In a study that made the front page of USA today, phthalates were linked to reproductive effects:
“Consistent toxicologic evidence indicates association between several of these phthalate esters and reproductive effects… DEHP has been shown to… reduce testosterone… commonly used phthalates may undervirilize humans.”
(Swan, et al, “Decrease in Anogenital Distance Among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure” University of Rochester School of Medicine, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Environmental Health Perspectives, August, 2005. www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYP/is_8_113/ai_n15343367)
In 1998, the National Environmental Trust, together with other environmental groups, asked the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to ban the use of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in products intended for children under age five.
While the CPSC could not entirely ban PVC, they recently asked manufacturers of baby products to voluntarily discontinue the use of phthalate plasticizers. Most manufacturers
are removing phthalates from toys (now generally being made with hard PVC plastic).
However, manufacturers are not currently removing phthalate plasticizers from baby mattresses (as this would turn the mattress surface into hard plastic and make it unusable). There is currently no plan in place to ban the use of phthalates in baby mattresses or to recall the millions of baby mattresses that already contain them. DEHP, the most common phthalate used in vinyl baby mattress covers, has already been banned in Europe for all children’s toys. The FDA has also issued a warning regarding this chemical:
“Exposure to DEHP has produced a range of adverse effects in laboratory animals, but of greatest concern are effects on the development of the male reproductive system... Precautions should be taken to limit the exposure of the developing male to DEHP.”
(FDA Public Health Notification, David W. Feigal, Jr. MD, MPH, Director, Center for Devices
and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration, July 12, 2002, www.fda.gov/cdrh/safety/dehp.html)
In addition to phthalates, the PVC surface of a typical baby mattress is also likely to contain several other well-established toxic chemicals. These frequently include lead, cadmium, antimony, phosphorus, and even arsenic.
B. Polyurethane Foam
Nearly all baby mattresses today use polyurethane foam (also known as urethane foam or just “foam”) as internal filling. Polyurethane foam is a petroleum product containing various problematic ingredients associated with numerous health hazards. It deteriorates over time, breaking up into small dust-like particles that can easily become airborne (releasing VOC’s associated with upper respiratory conditions and skin irritation).
“Avoid heavily chemically treated mattresses filled with polyurethane foam... Polyurethane foam offgasses VOCs, especially toluene... Formaldehyde and other VOC offgassing is associated with... mattresses.”
(“Green Birthdays.” American College of Nurse-Midwives. www.midwivesofwa.org/greenbirthdays.pdf
Some of the health hazards listed on manufacturer material safety data sheets (MSDS) for polyurethane foam include: possible cardiac arrhythmias, breathlessness, chest discomfort, irritation of mucous membranes, headache, coughing, asthma-like allergic reaction, dizziness, weakness, fatigue, nausea, blurred vision, and reduced pulmonary function.
Polyurethane foam is produced by combining a polyol (petroleum based) with an isocyanate (usually toluene diisocyanate or TDI), which is a highly toxic substance.
“Occupational exposure to TDI and other diisocyanates can cause... bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, rhinitis, conjunctivitis... irritation of the eyes, upper and lower respiratory tract and skin.”
(Community Exposure to Toluene Diisocyanate from a Polyurethane Foam Manufacturing Plant, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), MMWR, June 12, 1998 / 47(22);455-457, www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00053340.htm)
The EPA has identified several chemicals used in the fabrication of polyurethane foam as hazardous air pollutants (hydrochloric acid, 2,4-toluene diisocyanate, and hydrogen cyanide).
“Exposure to these substances has been demonstrated to cause adverse health effects such as irritation of the lung, eye, and mucous membranes, effects on the central nervous system, and cancer.”
(National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Flexible Polyurethane Foam Fabrication Operations, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 40 CFR Part 63, Final Rule, Federal Register/Volume 68, No. 71/Monday, April 14, 2003/Rules and Regulations, Pg 18062)
In addition, polyurethane foam contains chemical catalysts, surfactants, emulsifiers, pigments, and other chemical additives. These frequently include halogen compounds, chlorofluoro-alkanes, dichlorodifluoromethanes, formaldehyde, benzene, toluene, and other well established toxic chemicals including organotin compounds.
“Organotin compounds – Found in... polyurethane foams... can disrupt the hormone, reproductive, and immune systems. Animal studies show that exposure early in life can also have long-term effects on brain development.”
(“Hazardous Chemicals Found in Household Dust Across U.S. Health Care Without Harm. March 24, 2005. www.noharm.org/details.cfm?ID=1037&type=document)
Furthermore, polyurethane foam is a petroleum product, and as such, is extremely flammable. This poses an additional danger.
“If ignited, polyurethane foam can burn rapidly, releasing great heat and consuming oxygen. In an enclosed space, the resulting deficiency of oxygen can present a danger of suffocation to the occupants. Smoke and gases released by burning foam can be incapacitating to human beings if inhaled in sufficient quantities.”
(Polyurethane Foam Industry-Wide Warning Label)
Polyurethane foam decomposes into deadly and hazardous gases when ignited. In particular, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, and other toxic gases are released.
“polyurethane foam produces ten times more carbon monoxide for each gram burned than does wood.”
(Jonathan R. Barnett, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Fire Protection Engineering at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, http://encarta.msn.com/text_761563809___13/Fire.html)
“... carbon monoxide is the deadly gas and will kill us before the flames do.”
(Mattresses: Deadly Fire Hazards, CBS News, The Early Show, Interview with U.S.
Deputy Fire Administrator Chief Charlie Dickinson, June 28, 2004, www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/28/earlyshow/living/home/main626380.shtml)
C. Fire Retardant Chemicals
Due to the high flammability of petroleum-based polyurethane foam and PVC (the basic materials used in conventional baby mattresses), industrial strength toxic chemical fire retardants are added to meet the minimum flammability standards set by government agencies.
While there are no laws or regulations regarding the materials or chemical ingredients permitted to be used in baby mattresses (other than basic labeling requirements),
the government does mandate minimum flammability standards.
Fireproofing polyurethane foam poses a significant challenge (once again, because it is fundamentally petroleum). The most common chemical fire retardants used to treat poly-urethane foam for the past several decades have been polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and in particular pentaBDE.
PBDEs are associated with immune suppression, endocrine disruption, cancer, and behavioral problems. Furthermore, PBDEs can leach out of polyurethane foam into the surrounding air.
“PentaBDE... is predominantly used as a flame retardant in polyurethane foam... exposure can damage the thyroid and liver and cause hyperactivity, changes
in motor behavior and other brain functions... Because pentaBDE is not chemically bound to the polymer [foam], pentaBDE particles can leach out into the air. People can be exposed to pentaBDE through inhalation... Polyurethane foam typically contains 10-30% pentaBDE by weight.”
(Penta-Brominated Diphenyl Ether/PentaBDE, University of Massachusetts, Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, Fact Sheet, March 2003)
“Thyroid and neurobehavioral alterations... are possible effects of concern in children exposed to PBBs or PBDEs.”
(Public Health Statement: Polybrominated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBBs and PBDEs), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs68.html#bookmark06)
PentaBDE (and other PBDEs) have recently been banned in Europe. They have also been banned by the State of California as of 2006, with other states to follow.
In conjunction with the California ban regarding PBDEs, the California EPA has also issued
the following statement:
“These chemicals… raise serious public health questions in the Unites States. PBDEs have been shown to disrupt functioning of the human thyroid gland and may adversely affect brain development in children.”
(“California EPA News Release: R2-2003,” www.calepa.ca.gov/PressRoom/Releases/2003/R2.htm)
The EPA has asked manufacturers to voluntarily discontinue the use of pentaBDE. However, (without stronger federal legislation) the EPA has limited authority because pentaBDE is one
of many chemicals that were “grandfathered” by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976.
There is currently no planned government action to recall the millions of baby mattresses presently in use that contain pentaBDE. Furthermore, manufacturers have begun replacing pentaBDE with other PBDEs that are arguably no less toxic.
To meet the new and stricter flammability standards recently announced by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, manufacturers have also begun using a fire barrier layer to
shield the foam. These fire barriers typically contain modacrylic or polyacrylonitrile (PAN).
Modacrylic is made from combinations of acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen. Acrylonitrile (aka vinyl cyanide), is a probable human carcinogen and mutagen. Polyacrylonitrile or PAN (aka polyvinyl cyanide), when ignited, releases toxic fumes including carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and acrylonitrile.
The U.S. EPA, CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), and NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety) have all categorized acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride as hazardous to human health and the environment.
In addition to fire-treating the foam, manufacturers must also fire-treat the PVC surface. The primary fire retardant used for this purpose is antimony oxide, a suspected carcinogen. Antimony can be quite harmful even at low levels.
“... animals that breathed very low levels of antimony had eye irritation, hair loss, lung damage and heart problems. Problems with fertility were also noted... Where is antimony found?... Most antimony oxide produced is added to textiles and plastics as fire retardant...”
(“Antimony and Antimony Compounds.” Pollution Prevention Factsheet. Ohio EPA. Number 102. September 2002. www.epa.state.oh.us/opp/mercury_pbt/fact102.pdf)
“The primary effects from chronic (long term) exposure to antimony in humans are respiratory effects that include antimony pneumoconiosis... alterations in pulmonary function, chronic bronchitis, chronic emphysema, inactive tuberculosis, pleural adhesions... cardiovascular effects, and gastrointestinal disorders.”
(Antimony and Compounds, Lakes Environmental Software, Air Toxics Index, Chronic Effects, Referenced from Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Antimony, and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Toxicology Information Program, www.weblakes.com/toxic/ANTIMONY_AND_COMPOUNDS.HTML)
D. Unsanitary Ingredients
Mattresses also frequently include “shoddy” fiber pads and “hair” fiber pads. Shoddy pads are made from scraps swept off the floor from textile mills. Hair pads are generally made from pig hair. These scraps or hairs are generally held together by various glues and cut into pads. The lack of sanitary controls for these materials is nothing new in the mattress industry.
“Even in states with active tagging law programs, unscrupulous, unsafe and unsanitary practices continue to plague unsuspecting consumers seeking safe and healthful products to sleep on each night... This manual identifies 21 states/jurisdictions with no law in effect that applies to the manufacture and sale of bedding and/or upholstered furniture; therefore, these states do not register manufacturers, inspect products or enforce laws relative to those products. Many of the remaining states and jurisdictions that have labeling laws on the books often lack the resources to provide any meaningful enforcement.”
(2004 Manual of U.S. and Canadian Labeling Laws & Registration Requirements, International Sleep Products Association, Page 1)
As such, in 21 states, consumers have no assurance whatsoever as to what their mattress really contains. In the remaining states, there is little enforcement in any event.
Furthermore, even if a mattress tag states that the mattress is made from “all new materials",
it is nevertheless legally permissible to utilize a variety of questionable materials, including scraps swept off the floor, pig hair, and other such materials.
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